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External Websites Open Education Books published by UMass Amherst Libraries - Applied Electrical Engineering Fundamentals - Electronics Matters Society of Photographic Instrumentation Engineers - Introduction to Electronics National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Next-Generation Electronics and Sensing Technology Physics LibreTexts - Electronics Britannica Websites Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students. electronics - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11) electronics - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) Ask Anything Written by Robert I. Scace Director, Microelectronics Programs, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland. Robert I. Scace Fact-checked by Britannica Editors Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree.... Britannica Editors Last updated Apr. 6, 2026 â¢History Contents Ask AnythingSome electronic applications depend on the interactions between light and semiconductor materials mentioned in the section Optoelectronics. Such applications include the conversion of sunlight to electricity in solar cells. Most cells of this type consist of silicon diodes in specially designed enclosures to allow sunlight to illuminate them. Silicon is transparent to infrared light; this component of solar radiation passes through a solar cell without generating electricity. The waves of visible light, however, have enough energy to create hole-electron pairs (the mechanism that results in the absorption of the light). In the vicinity of the p-n junction, the holes are attracted toward the electrons on the n-type side, and the electrons are attracted to the holes on the p-type side. This constitutes a current that can be used to power small electrical appliances or to charge storage batteries.
There are special thyristors available that use light instead of a gate signal to initiate conduction. They have application in high-voltage systems wherein many thyristors in series must be employed to withstand the voltage. The practical difficulties involved in providing gate signals to all these thyristors, each at a different electrical potential, are simplified by using optical fibres (which are electrical insulators) to conduct pulses of light to the thyristors. The interaction of the light with the silicon produces carriers just as in a solar cell; these carriers provide the gate signal to switch on the thyristors.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are used in many electronic systems as visual indicators. They are made from III-V compounds related to gallium arsenide; the ones that generate red light are usually composed of gallium arsenide phosphide. The central brake light on the rear of automobiles is commonly an array of red LEDs. The red light in traffic signals is also an LED application. With the availability of brilliant, low-cost blue LEDs, it is now possible to make replacements for incandescent lightbulbs using a suitable mixture of coloured LEDs to provide the appropriate colour. These newer applications are driven by the need for greater reliability or electrical efficiency to justify the increase in cost.
Laser diodes, also made of III-V compounds, are used in digital audio and video disc players to read the minuscule tracks molded into the disc and containing the digitally recorded information. Lasers are employed because laser light can be focused into an extremely tiny spot of great brightness. The light scattered from the markings on the disc is detected by semiconductor photodiodes.
Robert I. Scace