Arithmetic logic unit | History, Working, Operations, & Facts | Britannica

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The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) performs arithmetic and logic operations on binary numbers, such as addition, subtraction, and Boolean comparisons, as well as logic operations, such as OR, AND, and NOT.

The workings of the modern ALU were first described by John von Neumann in his 1945 paper “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” though he did not use the term ALU.

Most early ALUs operated one bit at a time because of the high cost and power consumption of electronic circuits.

ALU design is crucial for central processing unit (CPU) performance, as ALU speed and efficiency have a significant impact on overall CPU performance.

arithmetic logic unit (ALU), a key component of a computer’s central processing unit (CPU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations on binary numbers (0 and 1). In some processors an ALU is divided into an arithmetic unit, which performs such operations as addition, subtraction, and Boolean comparisons (comparing two values by applying an operator, such as “is equal to” or “is not equal to,” and yielding a value of true or false), and a logic unit, which performs such operations as OR, AND, and NOT. After the incoming data has been processed, the output is sent back to computer memory, as well as to output controllers if necessary.

Early mechanical computers, such as the abacus and Pascal’s machine (Pascaline), can be thought of as primitive versions of ALUs. The workings of a modern ALU were first described by the mathematician and scientist John von Neumann in his incomplete 1945 paper “First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,” in which he described enhancements to the stored-program computer EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer). Von Neumann detailed a CA (Central Arithmetic) part, a component that performed functions similar to those of a modern ALU.

Most early ALUs operated one bit at a time because of the high cost and power consumption of electronic circuits. The Whirlwind computer, built in 1948, was one of the first computers to have multiple ALU circuits: 16 single-bit circuits operated on 16-bit words. In the late 1960s and early ’70s, ALUs were designed as integrated circuits, including the 8-bit Fairchild 3800 and the 4-bit Texas Instruments 74181. As transistors shrank, ALUs began to be integrated into microprocessors, such as IBM’s PALM, which used an 8-bit ALU to perform 16-bit operations by having each operation pass through the ALU twice. As transistors have shrunk further, ALUs have become more complex and capable of faster computations.

An ALU is a combinational circuit, wherein the output depends only on the input data provided. It has input and output access to the processor’s control unit, the memory unit, and its input and output devices. The input comes from the control unit, in the form of an instruction code, which includes the operation code (opcode), signifying what operation to perform, and one or more operands, on which the operation is to be performed. For example, in 1 + 2, the operands are 1 and 2, and the opcode is addition (+). The output from the ALU is the operation result, which is stored in memory. It may also include information indicating whether the operation was completed successfully.

Status output signals include a negative indicator, for a negative result; an overflow indicator, for a result exceeding the register size; and a carry indicator, for the carry from an addition operation (or the borrow from a subtraction operation). These outputs are available to future ALU operations.

ALU design is a key component of overall CPU design, as ALU speed and efficiency have a significant impact on overall CPU performance. The ALU helps execute critical operations quickly. Poor ALU design can significantly slow computations and waste memory and energy.

ALU design and function vary across processors. Some processors have a single ALU; others have multiple ALUs to perform calculations. Some ALUs are designed to conduct operations on both integers and floating-point numbers (decimal numbers represented with high precision); in other cases, all floating-point operations are performed separately in a floating-point unit (FPU) within the CPU. ALUs are also a key component of the graphics processing unit (GPU), a dedicated processor that can perform many calculations quickly to generate graphics.

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